Early trebuchets were built on site. As they grew increasingly large and powerful, wagons carrying sections of prefabricated trebuchets were brought to a siege and assembled in situ.

A trebuchet was a medieval siege weapon, operated using a counterweight to propel a long arm, attached to a sling, which could hurl a projectile with great force and accuracy at enemy fortifications.

Invented in China in around the fourth century BC, by the 12thcentury, improved counterweight trebuchets were in use in Europe.

Historian Michael S. Fulton offered the best examination of the machines in his book Development Of Prefabricated Artillery During The Crusades (2015).

He concluded that while smaller weapons were built on site, large trebuchets were not only assembled but also disassembled afterwards for transport so they could be reused at later sieges.

Perhaps the largest and most famous trebuchet of them all was Edward I’s Warwolf.

In 1304, he ordered his engineers to build this great piece of artillery for the siege of Stirling Castle in Scotland.

Assembled by five master carpenters and 49 labourers, the Warwolf could hurl rocks weighing as much as 300lb.

Early trebuchets were brought on site. As they grew larger and more powerful, wagons carried prefabricated section to a siege and assembled in situ

The Scots, watching the Warwolf being assembled, offered to surrender, but Edward reputedly refused to let anyone leave the castle until the great engine had bombarded it, which it did, successfully levelling the curtain wall.

Jon Francis, Norwich, Norfolk

QUESTION: What did the Keeper of the King’s Conscience do?

The Keeper of the King’s Conscience was a role of the Lord Chancellor. Historically, the Lord Chancellor was head of the Chancery, a court of equity (using fairness to resolve disputes) that originated in medieval England.

In its earliest form, those who were unable to obtain an adequate common law remedy (law derived from judicial decision), or felt they had been treated unfairly, could petition the King of England directly. Rather than making the judgment himself, he would refer the case to his ‘Conscience’, i.e. the Lord Chancellor.

Up until the Reformation the Chancellors were almost always churchmen, versed in civil and canon law. The Chancellor could thus bring legal and spiritual judgment to bear upon the case.Afterwards, the Chancellors were usually trained lawyers used to the process of reasoning.

Sarah Westwood, Birmingham

QUESTION: Was Gustav Holst the first composer to write about the planets?

Before Holst, there were works that explored celestial or planetary themes, though not in such a thorough or systematic manner as The Planets (1914-1917).

Orlando di Lasso (c.1532-1594) was a Catholic composer born in Mons in the Habsburg Netherlands (modern-day Belgium).

While many classical pieces explored celestrial or planetary themes before Holst (pictured), few were as thorough or systematic as The Planets

One of the most prolific, versatile and universal composers of the Renaissance, Lasso wrote more than 2,000 songs in Latin, French, Italian and German. Among his works was In Me Transierunt Irae Tuae (Your Wrath Swept Over Me), which directly inspired the German mathematician Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) to write Harmonices Mundi (Harmonies Of The World).

Harmonices Mundi captured the Pythagorean idea of planetary motion and the ‘music of the spheres’: the philosophical concept that celestial bodies such as the Sun, the Moon and the planets form music as they move through the solar system.

Austrian composer Joseph Haydn’s great oratorio The Creation (1798) celebrated the formation of the Universe. Although the lyrics were based on the biblical books of Genesis and Psalms, and John Milton’s Paradise Lost, Haydn was intensely interested in the astronomical discoveries of the day.

He is believed to have read Immanuel Kant’s Universal Natural History And Theory Of The Heavens (1755), which introduced Nebular Theory, the idea that the planets coalesced from gas and dust orbiting the Sun. The theory, as refined by French mathematician Pierre-Simon Laplace in the 1790s, was popular in the intellectual salons of the era.

Haydn also visited William Herschel’s astronomical observatory in Slough in June 1792. Peering through Herschel’s 40ft telescope may have provided the cosmic inspiration for The Representation of Chaos, the famous opening of The Creation.

It brilliantly captures the formation of celestial spheres from chaos, and it is clear from Haydn’s sketches that he took unprecedented pains over this composition.

Dr Ken Bristow, Glasgow

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Nigerian telecommunications companies said they proposed a 100 per cent tariff hike to the regulator, the NCC, across voice, data and digital and are awaiting approval.

The proposal, which has been submitted, aims to address rising operational costs, including inflation and increased service delivery expenses.

The disclosure was made by the Chief Executive Officer, MTN Nigeria, Karl Toriola, during an interview on Arise TV on Thursday.

However, the CEO said that it remains uncertain whether the Nigerian Communications Commission will approve the proposal.

According to Toriola, the proposed tariff hike is necessary for the sustainability of the industry, which has been facing significant financial pressures due to rising operational costs.

“We’ve put forward requests of approximately 100 per cent tariff increases to regulators. I doubt they’re going to approve that quantum of increases because they are very, very sensitive to the current economic situation in the country,” Toriola said.

Despite the challenges, Toriola expressed optimism that regulators would make the right decision, taking into account the realities of the sector.

The CEO emphasised that the focus is on ensuring the long-term sustainability of the industry, rather than short-term profitability.

“I believe we’re all on the same side, the policymakers, the regulators, our Chairman of ALTON, Gbenga Adebayo, and the industry. We’re united because we share concerns about a few fundamental issues. First, human rights, are critical to driving any economy. Without a sustainable industry, the broader economy and the well-being of the people will be negatively impacted.”

A top secret lab is developing a super-precise ‘quantum clock’ that could revolutionize British intelligence.

This super-accurate timekeeping device, to be rolled out by 2029, will allow more precise navigation and surveillance on Royal Navy ships and RAF planes.

It will also ‘enhance the accuracy of advanced weapons’ like guided missiles and give British computer boffins the edge over online adversaries like cyber criminals.

The clock’s precision will be so refined that it will lose less than one second over billions of years, allowing scientists to measure time at an unprecedented scale.

It is the first device of its kind to be built in the UK and will be deployable on military operations in the next five years, according to Defence Science and Technology Laboratory (DSTL).

‘This first trial of advanced atomic clock represents a significant achievement in the UK’s quantum technology capabilities,’ said DSTL chief executive Paul Hollinshead.

‘The data gathered will not only shape future defence effort but is also a signal to industry and academia that we are serious about exploring quantum technologies for secure and resilient operational advantage.’

Quantum clocks use quantum mechanics – the physics of matter and energy at the atomic and subatomic scale – to keep time with unprecedented accuracy by measuring energy fluctuations within atoms.

Developed at the top-secret Defence Science and Technology Laboratory, (Dstl) the quantum clock will improve British intelligence and surveillance by decreasing the reliance on GPS technology, which can be disrupted and blocked by adversaries

To be rolled out by 2029, the quantum clock will allow more precise navigation and surveillance on Royal Navy ships and RAF planes. Pictured, Royal Navy Duke class Type 23 anti-submarine frigate HMS Portland

Quantum clocks are even more accurate that the ‘atomic clocks’, of which there are approximately 400 already in operation around the world.

The UK already has an atomic clock at the National Physical Laboratory in London, but this quantum clock will be the country’s first.

Nick France, CTO of Sectigo, told MailOnline: ‘A quantum clock is a type of atomic clock – essentially a super-accurate timekeeping device.

‘Atomic clocks work by measuring the resonant frequency of atoms, whereas quantum clocks measure very small energy changes (‘quantum fluctuations’) in these atoms, leading to increased accuracy even over super-accurate atomic clocks.

‘Atomic clocks currently are incredibly accurate anyway, but a quantum clock has accuracy levels where only a single second is lost in billions of years of operation.’

The British quantum clock will be ‘the first device of its kind to be built in the UK’, said the UK government in a statement, but it will not be a world first.

Back in 2010, the University of Colorado at Boulder developed a quantum clock with the US National Institute of Standards and Technology.

However, key barriers to deploying quantum clocks are their size – current models come in a van or in a car trailer and are about 1,500 litres in volume.

Atomic clocks use certain resonance frequencies of atoms to keep time with extreme accuracy. Pictured, atomic clock at the University of Colorado Boulder in the US

Back in 2010, the University of Colorado at Boulder developed a quantum clock with the US National Institute of Standards and Technology (pictured)

Pictured, NIST-F1, source of the official time of the USA

Just like most quantum equipment, quantum also have sensitivity to environmental factors such as heat and air molecules, limiting their transport between different places.

‘Quantum clocks are not small like watches or alarm clocks,’ France added.

‘These are devices that in current implementations can be large, even room-sized devices.

‘However, improvements in technology will decrease the size of these devices making them more portable.’

Apart from just ultra-precise timekeeping, quantum clocks could transform global navigation systems by helping satellite communications and aircraft navigation.

According to DSTL, their quantum clock will enable more precise and independent navigation systems, reducing reliance on GPS satellites, which are vulnerable to jamming or destruction in conflict scenarios.

It will improve communications systems, such as encrypted military networks, which depend on highly synchronised timekeeping, as well as boosting the accuracy of advanced weapon systems like guided missiles, which rely on accurate timing to calculate trajectories and coordinate attacks.

What’s more, British Armed Forces will get an edge over adversaries in ‘timing-critical operations’, such as cyber warfare, where milliseconds can make a difference.

Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) is defined by sophisticated, ultra-precise ‘atomic clocks’ around the world, which tick precisely and continuously. Experts are pictured here with the NIST-F2 atomic clock in the US

Cyber warfare refers to the actions by a nation-state or international organization to attack and attempt to damage another nation’s computers or information networks.

France told MailOnline: ‘Super-accurate timekeeping is important to governments and militaries to enable accurate navigation (using GPS or similar technologies) of planes and ships, but also guidance of weapons systems such as missiles.

‘Equally important to the military as well as civilians is secure communications.

‘Much of the secure communications for governments and the military relies on accurate time sources to function.

‘But equally these accurate clocks are useful for more civilian applications and general internet security, even securing your personal data as it’s transmitted around the internet.’

Companies and governments around the world are keen to cash in on the huge potential benefits that the spooky effects of quantum technology could bring.

Google last month unveiled a new quantum computing chip it said could do in minutes what it would take leading supercomputers 10 septillion years to complete.

Eventually, such a chip could power a ‘commercial’ quantum computer that could be purchased by members of the public and used in labs, offices and even homes.

These ultra-powerful machines, which use the spooky effects of quantum physics, could do everything from speed up AI, solve climate changeand discover lifesaving drugs.

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